By Francesco Tormen · Excerpt from “Buddhism Has Always Been Posthuman”, Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies No. 18 (2023)
Please note that this paper is an excerpt from the following article: Francesco Tormen. “Buddhism Has Always Been Posthuman: Philosophical Contributions to the Transhumanist Project.” Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies. No. 18 (2023).
Transhumanist vs. Buddhist Human Enhancement
To draw a comparison between Buddhism and transhumanism, it is convenient to start with the concept of human enhancement, which is central, as we saw, in transhumanism, but which also has some significant affinities with the Buddhist tradition, especially the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna. As both McGuire and Sarbacker point out, this kind of literature describes extraordinary powers accomplished by Bodhisattvas along the path, both physical (such as the ability to vanish, to pass through walls, to walk on water, to fly, to emanate multiple bodies etc.) and mental (such as recollection of previous lives, knowledge of others’ states of mind, but also, and more essentially, directly perceiving the true nature of all phenomena)1. These extraordinary powers may indeed be reminiscent of the forms of human enhancement foreshadowed by transhumanist authors. We are not talking about marginal aspects of the spiritual path; e.g., in Tibetan commentaries on the Abhisamayālankāra, these forms of enhancement are described in great detail and presented as important steps in the Bodhisattva’s spiritual journey, aimed at either pursuing their own liberation or maximizing their ability to help others2. In order to assess the level of compatibility between these forms of spiritual empowerment and those described in transhumanist literature, we shall consider two aspects: 1) the means by which the enhancement is achieved and 2) the purpose for which it is pursued. I will deal with this second aspect in the next section, whereas here I will focus on the first one, namely, the comparability between the means for human enhancement used in Buddhism (as well as in other ascetic and contemplative traditions) and those imagined in transhumanist literature, some of which, as we shall see, are already employed in experimental form at present.
At first glance, it could be argued that these two ways to achieve human enhancement are not similar at all, one being “inner” and “natural,” the other being “outer” and “unnatural.” Upon closer analysis, however, such distinctions soon vanish, if one considers that various kinds of Buddhist practitioners, at times, have used all sorts of means to alter and enhance their psychophysical condition, like fasting, prolonged wakefulness, breath manipulations, mantra repetitions, sexual practices, and all sorts of “unnatural” manipulations of body and mind. Even meditation (of any kind) involves a far-from-ordinary use of attention, aimed at modifying (and usually enhancing) one’s state of consciousness. Sarbacker goes so far as to suggest that ancient Indian ascetics could be regarded as the ancestors of modern biohackers, as they discovered systems to ‘hack’ their own biophysical systems3.
Hence, the boundaries between inner and outer, or natural and unnatural, appear rather relative in this context. And to those who object that using futuristic technologies to enhance one’s abilities represents a dangerous “shortcut”, or an “unfair means” of achieving spiritual goals, it is enough to recall how, for example, Tibetan Buddhist tradition presents the Vajrayāna path: it is in fact described precisely as a shortcut to attaining enlightenment much faster than Sūtrayāna (one lifetime compared to three immeasurable kalpas). Like all shortcuts, it obviously carries risks and could be used in erroneous and dangerous ways by the practitioner unprepared or lacking the proper motivation. Either way, it can be said that when Tantra first appeared in Tibet, it was presented exactly as an innovative and extremely effective (even if dangerous) technology for spiritual “empowerment;” even the Tibetan equivalent of this term (dbang), which refers to the initiatory rituals of tantra, hints at this character: tantric practices—like many other contemplative techniques from Asia—can be defined as technologies of human enhancement embraced for spiritual purposes. To summarize what has been said so far about the means employed for human empowerment, there seems to be no relevant reason to preclude the use of the technologies described by transhumanism to more effectively pursue the spiritual goals of Buddhism: to achieve them, today as in the past, one could say that “the end justifies the means.”
Another kind of argument to show the compatibility between Buddhism and transhumanism in relation to the means employed for human enhancement is sociological in nature and concerns the degree to which contemporary Buddhists are open to science and technology. Hughes in this regard states: “Since the nineteenth century, many Asian and Western Buddhists have downplayed the superstitious aspects of Buddhism, arguing for its compatibility with science, and framing meditation as a human enhancement technology4.” A little further on, in the same article, Hughes even states that “there are reasons to believe that the societies from India to Japan are particularly open to the possibility of human enhancement partly because of the influence of Buddhism5.” Hence not only do contemporary forms of Asian Buddhism show some inclination toward human enhancement because of their openness to science and technology, but this fact also influences the acceptance toward such technologies by people living in countries where Buddhism is well established. This fact also emerges from a study by Macer on genetic enhancement in Asia, which reveals a high acceptance toward this type of technology in predominantly Buddhist countries, such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and South Korea6. On the other hand, there are also those who denounce the ideological and propagandistic nature of this narrative that portrays Buddhism as compatible with modern science. For instance, according to Bruno Lo Turco, at the turn of the 19th to the 20th century, Asian Buddhist apologists, noticing the crisis in Christianity and the gap between religion and science in the Western mindset, decided to seize the opportunity and promote Buddhism as a “scientific religion,” better suited than Christianity to fulfil the spiritual needs of the modern individual7.
Regardless of one’s personal opinion on the matter, the collaboration over the past half-century between Buddhism and neuroscience has indeed proven to be quite fruitful, at least in documenting the benefits of meditation for both physical health and psychological well-being, as well as in the development of secular mind-trainings conceived for various purposes and social contexts (including psychotherapy, education, sports, business, etc.). This fact seems to argue in favor of a harmonious match between Buddhism, science, and technology—which aligns with transhumanist aspirations.
But while so far it has mostly been a matter of using modern technology to observe what happens during meditation, in recent times, new scenarios are beginning to open. The first tools to support and enhance meditation and develop positive inner qualities are beginning to emerge. Hughes speaks in this regard of “moral enhancement,” namely, “the use of emerging neurotechnologies to promote self-control, compassion, insight, and meditative experiences8.” According to Hughes, over time these tools could play an increasingly central role in the practitioner’s life: “Neurotechnologies may be seen as temporary spiritual training wheels, helping to create a solid foundation of moral behavior, concentration, and mental clarity. As the technologies develop they may be used by some as the principal means of self-transformation9.” Sarbacker, who shows a slightly more critical stance, offers a list of such “contemplative technologies,” as he refers to them: these include neurofeedback devices based on Electroencephalogram (EEG), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TCMS), transcranial electrical stimulation (TCES), psychoactive agents like psilocybin, nootropics, but also virtual reality (VR) and “other technologies that aim to induce meditative or visionary states through the constructive application of sensory stimulation or overloading10.”
To summarize this analysis, it can be said first of all that the introduction of new forms of human (and moral) enhancement into Buddhist practice does not seem incompatible with the Mahāyāna tradition—which makes no significant distinctions between natural and unnatural means, but rather has always been open to the introduction of new and more powerful tools for spiritual development. Moreover, a “scientific” reading of Buddhism has already been going on for a while and seems to be having an influence on the adherents of Asian Buddhisms, making them quite open to the possibilities of human enhancement. Finally, the early devices and other means of enhancing spiritual practice are already beginning to appear and could radically change the way people meditate. Rather than just a future possibility, the embrace of human enhancement seems to be almost a destiny, if not already a reality, at least for certain branches and developments of Buddhist thought and practice.
Notes
1. See McGuire, “Buddhist Uploads,” 149, and Stuart Ray Sarbacker, “Buddhist Meditation and the Ethics of Human Augmentation,” Journal of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities 5, no. 2 (2020): 70.
2. It is worth noting that the enhancement of siddhi (spiritual powers) is primarily a prerogative of Mahāyāna Buddhism, whereas several suttas included in the Pali Canon (e.g., the Kevaddha Sutta) show a more critical stance about such powers, regarding them as incidental or even harmful to Buddhist soteriology.
3. “In fact, one might argue that these early Indian ascetics, yogins, and yoginīs were some of the original biohackers, who had discovered how various exogenous catalysts (such as psychoactive substances) and endogenous techniques (such as exposure, immobility, fasting, breath control, sense-withdrawal, and meditation) evoked extraordinary physical and mental states, having ‘unlocked’ or ‘hacked’ their biophysical systems.” Sarbacker, “Buddhist Meditation,” 68.
4. Hughes, “Buddhism and Our Posthuman Future,” 653.
5. Hughes, “Buddhism and Our Posthuman Future,” 654.
6. See Darryl R. J. Macer, “Ethical Consequences of the Positive Views of Enhancement in Asia,” Health Care Analysis 20 (2012).
7. See Bruno Lo Turco, “Salvare il buddhismo dalla scienza. Osservazioni su una confusione di giochi linguistici” (Saving Buddhism from Science: Observations on a Confusion of Language Games), in Il buddhismo contemporaneo. Rappresentazioni, istituzioni, modernità (Contemporary Buddhism: Representations, Institutions, Modernity), ed. Federico Squarcini, and Marta Sernesi (Firenze: Società Editrice Fiorentina, 2006) 46-47. See also Donald S. Lopez Jr., Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
8. Hughes, “Buddhism and Our Posthuman Future,” 659-60. See also James J. Hughes, “Using Neurotechnologies to Develop Virtues: A Buddhist Approach to Cognitive Enhancement,” Accountability in Research: Policies & Quality Assurance 20, no. 1 (2013).
9. Hughes, “Buddhism and Our Posthuman Future,” 660.
10. Sarbacker, “Buddhist Meditation,” 65.
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About the author
Francesco Tormen holds a Ph.D. in Philosophy and serves as an adjunct professor of Tibetan language at Ca’ Foscari University of Venice. He is also the co-director of the Italian Buddhist Union’s Research Center and is a member of the Organizing Committee for the Master’s Program in “Contemplative Studies” at the University of Padova. He has recently published articles on Madhyamaka philosophy, Tibetan dream yoga, lucid dreaming, Contemplative Studies, and the relationship between Buddhism, posthumanism, and transhumanism.
This article first appeared in EBU Magazine #12 – Artificial Intelligence (Spring 2024). Download the full issue as PDF or browse all issues.